What Is CNC Machining? | A Comprehensive Guide

How do manufacturers achieve precision and sophistication in their products? The answer lies in the CNC machining process. A highly complex manufacturing process that has revolutionized the industry, CNC machining is known for its precision and versatility. It has become the cornerstone of modern manufacturing.

As a professional rapid prototyping manufacturer, Yonglihao Machinery focuses on providing high-quality solutions. We can provide our customers with quality CNC machining, metal stamping, and die casting services. With advanced technology and a commitment to quality, we provide precision, complex parts that meet the most demanding specifications.

What is CNC Machining?

CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machining is a subtractive manufacturing technology. CNC stands for Computer Numerical Control and refers to the use of computers to automate machine tools. This means that the process uses a computer program to control machine tools such as lathes, mills and grinders. This technology allows for better accuracy, efficiency, and consistency in the production of parts and products. As a result, it has revolutionized the manufacturing landscape.

These programs are designed using CAD (Computer Aided Design) software, which creates complex designs with high precision. The CAD design is then converted into CNC code that the machine can execute. Ultimately, CNC machining produces parts with intricate details and precise specifications.

CNC machining has a wide range of applications. It covers a variety of industries such as aerospace, automotive, healthcare and consumer goods. Due to its ability to produce complex parts with high precision and minimize waste. This makes it an essential technology for modern manufacturing.

The benefits of CNC machining include increased accuracy and reduced production time. In addition, it can produce complex geometries that are difficult or impossible to achieve by hand. Yonglihao Machinery offers CNC machining services as well as other metalworking solutions. We can meet the needs of a wide range of industries that require high-quality, precision-engineered parts.

A Brief History of CNC Machining

The development of CNC machining represents a significant milestone in the history of manufacturing. We have witnessed a remarkable evolution from the early days of numerical control (NC) machining to the sophisticated computer-controlled systems used today.

CNC machining evolved from NC machining, which used punched tape cards to control machine tools. This early technology laid the foundation for the modern CNC systems that are now ubiquitous in manufacturing. The transition from NC to CNC marked a significant improvement in precision, speed, and flexibility.

The history of CNC machining is closely tied to advancements in computer technology. As computers became more powerful and affordable, CNC machining became more accessible to manufacturers. Today, CNC machining is a cornerstone of modern manufacturing, enabling the production of complex parts with high precision and efficiency.

Yonglihao Machinery has a rich history of providing high-quality manufacturing solutions, and we continue to leverage the latest advancements in CNC machining to deliver exceptional results. The evolution of CNC machining has been a key factor in our ability to meet the complex needs of our clients.

How Does CNC Machining Work?

Next, let’s understand the workflow of CNC machining. CNC machining works by combining design, technology, and precision engineering to deliver precise manufacturing solutions. We utilize advanced technology to deliver precise manufacturing solutions, ensuring that every part meets the required specifications.

The CNC machining process involves several key steps. First, a CAD model is designed using computer-aided design software. This model is then converted into G-code, which is a programming language that instructs the CNC machine on the operations to perform.

Once the G-code is generated, the CNC machine is prepared for the machining operation. This involves setting up the machine, loading the necessary tools, and securing the workpiece. The CNC machine then executes the machining operation, following the instructions provided by the G-code.

The CNC machining process offers several benefits, including high precision, accuracy, and the ability to produce complex parts. By understanding the steps involved in CNC machining, manufacturers can optimize their production processes and achieve better results.

Here are the main steps involved in the CNC machining process:

• Designing a CAD model using computer-aided design software
• Converting the CAD model to G-code
• Preparing the CNC machine for the machining operation
• Executing the machining operation

Types of CNC Machining Operations

CNC machining operations can be divided into three main categories: turning, milling, and drilling.

Turning: When a CNC machine is used for turning, the cutting tool moves along the line of the workpiece, machining a part that is shaped like a cylinder. A lathe is a machine that can be used to turn things. Screws, shafts, and pipes are all items that can be made by turning.

Milling: Milling is a type of CNC machining in which a cutting tool passes through the surface of a workpiece to produce a flat or complex shape. CNC milling machines and cutting centers are two types of machines that can mill. Parts that are machined by milling include frames, gears, and brackets.

Drilling: When a CNC machine is used for drilling, the cutting tool moves up and down the workpiece to make the hole. Drills and machining centers are two types of machine tools that can perform excavation work. For example, screw holes can be machined by drilling.

CNC machining can also be used for specific tasks such as grinding, sawing, and boring. These steps are used to create specific types of parts or to smooth the surface of a part.

Types of CNC Machines

Many different types of CNC machines are commonly found on the market, which we will cover below.

CNC Machine Tools

A CNC lathe is a machine that rotates a workpiece around an axis while using tools to create cylindrical parts in different ways on raw materials.

CNC Milling Machine

A CNC Milling Machine uses a rotating cutting tool to remove material from a block of material until the desired shape is achieved. Each type of CNC cutting machine is different.

• Vertical CNC: The spindle of this type of CNC machine is oriented vertically.
• Horizontal CNC: The spindle of this machine moves horizontally.
• Multi-axis CNC: As the name suggests, this type of machine has three spindles: X, Y, and Z planes. In addition to this, there are rotary axes for cutting at different angles.
• Bed-type CNC machines: In this type of machine, the table remains stationary, but the spindle moves to do the work.
• Knee CNC machine: This machine has the spindle placed vertically and the table moves to cut.

CNC Router Machine

The CNC router machines are not as accurate as CNC milling machines, but are inexpensive and can process soft materials such as foam, wood, composites, plastics and metals.

CNC Drilling Machine

Using a CNC drilling machine, you can make precise holes of different sizes and thicknesses in materials such as metal, plastic, composites, and wood.

It can perform many different tasks such as drilling, reaming, tapping, and countersinking. These drilling machines utilize CNC technology, making them more accurate and practical than other types of drilling tools.

CNC Plasma Cutting Machines

CNC plasma cutters use a plasma torch to cut metal. Adding energy to a gas converts it into plasma, which is an electrically charged hot gas.

The plasma torch uses this hot gas to cut metal. A plasma cutter is a very versatile machine that can cut a variety of charged metals such as copper, aluminium, and stainless steel.

CNC Laser Cutting Machine

A CNC laser cutter is a machine that cuts items with a laser beam. A laser is a device that produces a laser beam by stimulating the release of electromagnetic radiation to enhance light. A laser cutter can cut many things. It can be used to cut metal, plastic, glass, and wood.

CNC Water Jet Cutting Machine

A water jet cutter is a CNC machine that uses water to cut items. A high-pressure pump sprays a jet of water at speeds up to Mach 3 (three times the speed of sound) to cut through objects. The water jet can also easily cut objects up to 12 inches (30 cm) thick.

Wire EDM Machine

An electrode is a component of an electrical discharge machining (EDM) machine that helps break down conductive materials such as hardened steel or carbide. This new technology is exciting because it makes it possible to make things differently than the way they are normally made.

In traditional machining, the cutting tool is rotated against the object. Instead, it is set up so that there is a small space between it and the workpiece being machined.

An electrode sends a high-frequency electric spark to the workpiece to cut or fabricate parts.  However, many things must be in place for EDM forming to work smoothly, such as the type of metal being machined and the size and shape of the part.

CNC Grinding Machines

CNC grinding machines can perform very complex precision grinding jobs. They come in different shapes and sizes, such as cylindrical grinders, centerless grinders, and surface grinders.

CNC Machine Axis Types

Each type of CNC machine has different types of axes, some of the common ones are these. Next, let’s take a look at these multi-axis machining tools.

2-Axis CNC Machine: The most basic type of CNC machine is the 2-axis CNC machine, which is usually used for simple tasks such as cutting or drilling. The X and Y axes of a CNC machine allow the cutting tool to move in both directions. This is known as a 2-axis machine tool.

3-Axis CNC Machine Tools: 3-axis CNC machine tools are more flexible and can perform more tasks such as cutting, drilling, and tapping. When the cutting tool can move in three directions, X, Y, and Z, the CNC machine is called a 3-axis machine.

4-Axis CNC Machine Tools: In addition to this, 4-axis CNC machine tools are capable of performing more tasks such as cutting, drilling, tapping, and boring. If the cutting tool can be moved in three directions (X, Y, and Z axes) and can be rotated around the X-axis, it is called a 4-axis CNC machine tool. So, do you understand the difference between 4-axis and 5-axis CNC machines?

5-Axis CNC Machine Tools: If you understand what 5-axis CNC machining is, then you will know why it can accomplish most machining tasks. On a 5-axis CNC machine, the cutting tool can move in three directions: the X, Y, and Z axes. The cutting tool can also rotate around the X and Y axes, which are called the A and B axes, respectively.

Benefits & Limitations of CNC Machining

CNC machining stands out in the manufacturing sector due to its high precision and speed. As a key technology in modern manufacturing, it offers numerous benefits while also presenting some limitations. We aim to provide high-quality manufacturing solutions while being aware of these limitations.

Benefits of CNC Machining

CNC machining offers several advantages that make it a preferred choice in various industries. Some of the key benefits include:

• High precision: CNC machining can produce parts with very tight tolerances, ensuring that the final product meets the required specifications.
• Speed: CNC machines can operate continuously, reducing production time and increasing efficiency.
• Versatility: CNC machining can work with a variety of materials, including metals and plastics, allowing for a wide range of applications.
• Consistency: Once a program is set, CNC machines can repeat the same operation multiple times with consistent results, ensuring uniformity across production runs.

Limitations of CNC Machining

While CNC machining offers numerous benefits, it also has some limitations that need to be considered. These include:

• High setup costs: Setting up a CNC machine for a new job can be expensive due to the need for programming and tooling.
• Material waste: CNC machining is a subtractive process, which can result in material waste, especially if not optimized properly.
• Complexity: Operating CNC machines requires skilled personnel, and the complexity of the machines can be a barrier for some businesses.
• Initial investment: The initial cost of purchasing CNC equipment can be high, making it a significant investment for any manufacturing operation.

Understanding both the benefits and limitations of CNC machining is crucial for businesses to make informed decisions about their manufacturing processes. By leveraging strengths and reducing weaknesses, companies can achieve high-quality production. Then, they can remain competitive in their respective markets.

Applications of CNC Machining

CNC machining offers a high degree of precision and versatility. This makes it a key process in a wide range of industries, from aerospace to consumer goods. Yonglihao Machinery serves a variety of industries, including aerospace, automotive, and medical. We can provide them with precision-machined parts tailored to their specific needs.

CNC machining is used in various industries, including aerospace, automotive, medical, and consumer products. Its ability to produce complex parts with high precision makes it an essential manufacturing process. We utilize CNC machining to create parts that are not only functional but also meet the stringent standards of different industries.

In the aerospace industry, CNC machining is used to produce critical components that require high precision and reliability. Similarly, in the automotive sector, it is used for manufacturing parts that demand high accuracy and durability.

The medical industry also benefits from CNC machining, as it is used to create intricate medical devices and implants. Consumer products, such as electronics and appliances, are also manufactured using CNC machining, highlighting its versatility.

By leveraging CNC machining, we can deliver high-quality parts that meet the diverse needs of various industries, driving innovation and efficiency in industrial manufacturing.

CNC Machining Design Restrictions

To ensure manufacturability, it is essential to understand the design limitations associated with CNC machining. CNC machining is a versatile manufacturing process capable of producing complex parts with high precision. However, in order to optimize manufacturability, it is necessary to consider certain design limitations. The design restrictions in CNC machining are a natural result of the mechanics of the cutting process, and specifically:

Tool Geometry: Most CNC machining tools are cylindrical with flat or spherical ends. This limits the geometry of the parts that can be machined. A CNC part’s interior vertical corners, for example, will always have a radius, regardless of how small the cutting tool employed.

Tool Access: CNC machining is not possible on surfaces that the cutting tool cannot reach. This restricts, for example, the manufacturing of parts with internal ‘hidden’ geometries and limits the maximum depth of an undercut.

Workpiece Stiffness: The workpiece may bend or vibrate as a result of the cutting forces and heat generated during the machining process. This limits the minimum wall thickness of a CNC-machined object, as well as the maximum aspect ratio of tall features.

Tool Stiffness: The cutting tool, like the workpiece, can deflect or vibrate during the machining process. This leads to looser tolerances and possibly tool breakage. The effect becomes more pronounced as the cutting tool’s length-to-diameter ratio grows. This is why deep cavities cannot be easily CNC machined.

Workholding: The geometry of a part dictates how it is held on the CNC machine and how many setups are necessary. This has an impact on both the cost and the precision of a part.

Design rules for CNC machining

Effective CNC machining starts with a well-designed part, adhering to specific design rules. We provide guidance on designing for CNC machining, ensuring that your parts are both functional and cost-effective to produce.

When designing parts for CNC machining, several key considerations must be taken into account. Firstly, it’s essential to avoid sharp internal corners, as these can be difficult to machine and may lead to stress concentrations in the final part. Instead, we recommend using radiused corners to improve the machinability and durability of the part.

Another critical design rule is to limit the depth of cavities. Deep cavities can be challenging to machine, requiring specialized tooling and potentially increasing production time and costs. As a general guideline, we suggest keeping cavity depths to a minimum, ideally not exceeding 4 times the cavity width.

To further optimize your design for CNC machining, consider the following best practices:

• Use generous radii and fillets to reduce stress concentrations and improve machinability.
• Avoid complex geometries that may require specialized tooling or multiple machining operations.
• Specify tolerances that are reasonable for the machining process, avoiding overly tight tolerances that can increase production costs.

By following these design rules and guidelines, you can ensure that your parts are optimized for CNC machining. This can improve product quality and reduce production costs.

Designing undercuts

Incorporating undercuts into CNC-machined designs requires a nuanced approach to manufacturing. Undercuts can be challenging in CNC machining, requiring special tooling and techniques.

We understand the complexities involved and use our expertise to overcome these challenges. This helps customers design complex parts with undercuts.

Several key factors must be considered when designing undercuts. These include the type of cutting tool required and the machining technique to be used. Choosing the right tool and method is crucial. This ensures that the desired undercut features can be achieved without compromising the integrity of the part.

To effectively design undercuts, one must consider the following:

• The geometry of the undercut and its implications on tooling.
• The material being machined and its properties.
• The capabilities and limitations of the CNC machining equipment.

By carefully evaluating these factors, we can design a counterbore that meets the specific needs of our customers. At the same time, we can also ensure manufacturability and quality.

Materials for CNC machining

We utilize various materials in CNC machining, including metals and plastics, to produce high-quality parts. The choice of material is crucial as it affects the final product’s quality, functionality, and durability.

CNC machining supports a broad spectrum of materials, each with its unique properties and applications. Understanding these materials is essential for selecting the right one for your project.

Metals

Metals are widely used in CNC machining due to their strength, durability, and versatility. Some common metals used include:

• Aluminum: Aluminum alloy has an excellent strength-to-weight ratio, good thermal conductivity, and electrical conductivity. In addition, it also has excellent corrosion resistance.
• Stainless Steel: Stainless steel alloys are strong and ductile, with great wear and corrosion resistance. They can be welded, machined, or polished.
• Alloy Steel: General-purpose steel alloys with higher hardness, toughness, fatigue, and wear resistance than mild steels, but lower chemical resistance.
• Mild Steel: Low-cost, general-purpose alloys with excellent mechanical characteristics, machinability, and weldability.
• Tool steel: Very high hardness, rigidity, abrasion, and temperature resistance. They are used for dies, stamps, molds, and other industrial tools.
• Brass: Excellent machinability and frictional properties. The golden appearance is aesthetically attractive.

Plastics

Plastics are another critical material category in CNC machining, offering a range of benefits including lower cost, reduced weight, and increased flexibility. Common plastics used include:

• ABS: Common lightweight thermoplastics with good mechanical characteristics and high impact strength.
• Polycarbonate (PC): It offers exceptional impact strength, heat resistance, and toughness. It can be either colored or clear. Suitable for outdoor use.
• Nylon: It is a versatile engineering thermoplastic. Nylon is known for its strong mechanical properties and chemical resistance.
• POM (Delrin): This is an easy-to-process engineering thermoplastic. It has high rigidity, excellent friction performance, and strong thermal stability.
• PEEK: It is a high-performance engineering thermoplastic used for demanding applications.

Yonglihao Machinery has a deep understanding of the properties and applications of these materials. Therefore, we can better select the materials that best suit your CNC machining needs.

Surface Finishes

Surface treatment is performed after machining. It affects the appearance, surface roughness, hardness, and chemical resistance of the finished product. The following is a quick summary of the most typical CNC finishes:

As-machined: The tolerances of workpieces in a machined state are minimal. This is because no additional processing has been performed. Marks following the route of the cutting instrument are apparent, however. The standard surface roughness of machined workpieces is 3.2 μm (125 μin). Further machining can reduce this to 0.4 μm (16 μin).

Bead Blasting: Shot blasting can create a uniform matte or satin finish on processed objects. In addition, it can eliminate all tool marks. Bead blasting is mostly employed for cosmetic reasons, as the resulting surface roughness is not guaranteed. Critical surfaces or features (such as holes) can be hidden to prevent any dimensional changes.

Anodizing: Anodizing is the process of coating the surface of aluminum parts with a thin, hard, non-conductive ceramic coating. This enhances their corrosion resistance and wear resistance. In addition, it can also hide critical areas to maintain strict tolerances. Anodized pieces can be colored to achieve a smooth, aesthetically attractive surface.

Hardcoat Anodizing: Hard anodizing can form thicker, denser ceramic coatings. It has excellent corrosion and wear resistance. Hardcoat anodizing is ideal for functional applications. The standard coating thickness is 50 μm, with no color added. Critical sections can be hidden to maintain tight tolerances.

Powder Coating: Powder coating applies a thin layer of robust, wear-resistant, and corrosion-resistant protective polymer paint to the surface of an item. It may be applied to any material and comes in a variety of colors.

Silk Screening: Screen printing is a low-cost method. It is often used to print text or logos on the surface of CNC machined parts to achieve an aesthetic effect. It can be used alongside other finishes, like as anodizing. The print can only be applied to the part’s external surfaces.

Explore more metal surface finish methods.

How Much Does CNC Machining Cost?

Understanding the cost of CNC machining is crucial for businesses to budget effectively for their manufacturing needs. The cost of CNC machining is influenced by a number of key factors. Therefore, understanding these factors is critical to optimizing production costs.

Factors Influencing CNC Machining Costs

Several factors contribute to the overall cost of CNC machining. These include:

• Material: The type and cost of the material being machined significantly affect the overall cost. Different materials have varying prices and machining characteristics.
• Complexity: The complexity of the part design influences the machining time and the level of expertise required, thereby impacting the cost.
• Quantity: The quantity of parts being produced affects the cost due to economies of scale in material procurement and machining time.
• Machining Time: The time required to process parts directly affects costs. This is because the longer the processing time, the higher the labor and machine costs.

Yonglihao Machinery provides competitive pricing for our CNC machining services by optimizing these factors.

Additional Cost Considerations in CNC Machining

Beyond the primary factors, other considerations can impact CNC machining costs, including:

• Tooling Costs: The cost of tools and fixtures required for machining can add to the overall expense.
• Post-Machining Operations: Additional operations such as grinding, polishing, or coating can increase costs.
• Design Revisions: Changes to the part design can result in additional costs due to rework and potential scrap.

How to Reduce CNC Machining Costs

To minimize CNC machining costs, businesses can:

• Simplify Part Designs: Reducing complexity can decrease machining times and costs.
• Optimize Material Selection: Choosing materials that are easier to machine can reduce costs.
• Plan Production Efficiently: Maximizing the use of machine time and minimizing setup changes can help reduce costs.

By understanding and addressing these factors, we help our clients achieve competitive pricing for their CNC machining needs.

How Do I Get Started in CNC Machining?

Getting started with CNC machining may seem daunting. However, with the right guidance, the entire process becomes straightforward. We guide our customers through every step of CNC machining. This ensures that they understand the complex details involved.

How to Calculate the CNC Machining Time?

Calculating CNC machining time is crucial for project planning and cost estimation. The time required for CNC machining depends on several factors. These include part complexity, material, and the type of CNC machine used.

• Part complexity: More complex parts require more time due to the need for intricate machining operations.
• Material: Different materials have varying levels of hardness and machinability, affecting the machining time.
• CNC machine type: The capabilities and specifications of the CNC machine, such as its speed and precision, influence the overall machining time.

We take these factors into consideration when estimating CNC machining time. In addition, we use advanced software to simulate the machining process, thereby providing accurate estimates.

What You Should Know Before CNC Production Machining

Before delving into CNC manufacturing, you should familiarize yourself with the relevant content. For example, understand the design requirements, material selection, and the CNC machining process itself.

In addition, understanding design for manufacturability is crucial. Yonglihao Machinery works closely with customers to optimize their CNC machining designs. This ensures that the final product meets specifications and is produced efficiently.

Comparison of CNC machining with other machining methods

The world of manufacturing is diverse, with several methods available. These include CNC machining, manual machining, injection molding, and 3D printing. We help clients choose the best manufacturing method for their needs by comparing these processes.

CNC Machining vs. Manual Machining

CNC machining, commonly referred to as “computer numerical control.” It has become a faster and more efficient manufacturing method. It enables the mass production of high-precision, high-quality parts. Unlike CNC machining, manual machining does not use computer programs. Operators directly control the machine tool to process the workpiece.

Therefore, manual machining typically requires skilled technicians with specialized expertise. They can manually control the machine tool to perform various precision machining tasks according to the workpiece specifications. Since no programming is required, manual machining offers greater flexibility in production changes and transitions. Although manual processing is less precise and efficient than CNC machining. However, it is still very useful for single-piece products, prototyping, and small-batch production.

CNC Machining vs. Injection Molding

Precision and efficiency are crucial in the manufacturing process. CNC machining and injection molding are among the most advanced technologies available today. Each technology has its own unique advantages and can meet the needs of different industries.

CNC machining technology can process unique parts made of various materials with unparalleled precision. Injection molding technology can meet the efficiency requirements of large-scale plastic production. Therefore, companies need to choose the most suitable processing technology based on their own needs.

CNC Machining vs. 3D Printing

Today’s manufacturing industry places great emphasis on CNC machining and 3D printing technology. These two technologies have become an indispensable means of producing parts. CNC machining is a subtractive manufacturing process that offers high precision and surface finish. It can process materials with ultra-high clarity and achieve complex designs. CNC machining processes have proven indispensable in the production of high-quality metal and plastic parts across multiple industries.

On the other hand, 3D printing is an additive manufacturing process that enables the creation of complex geometric shapes. The specific choice depends on the complexity of the part and the material. It manufactures objects by layering material in successive layers. This makes it possible to produce parts with complex shapes that are difficult or even impossible to achieve using traditional processes.

CNC machining is suitable for mass production. It excels in durability and precision. However, 3D printing has advantages in prototyping and product modification. It offers exceptional flexibility and efficiency. Combining these two technologies provides a comprehensive machining solution for part processing.

To Summarize

CNC machines are very important to the production process. It can make parts and products quickly and accurately. CNC machines can do a lot of things, so they are bound to play an important role in the future of industry.

Overall, CNC machining is a flexible and accurate manufacturing method that has many advantages over older methods. When used properly, it can create parts that are stronger and more accurate than other methods.

If you are considering choosing the right CNC machining service provider, then we have detailed advice for you in this article. You can also contact Yonglihao Machinery directly for professional CNC machining services.

FAQ

What are the benefits of CNC machining?

CNC machining offers numerous advantages. These include high precision, high accuracy, and high speed. In addition, it can also process complex geometric shapes and designs.

What types of CNC machines are available?

There are many types of CNC machine tools. These include 3-axis, 4-axis, and 5-axis machine tools, as well as CNC lathes. Each type of machine tool has its own unique functions and applications.

What materials can be used in CNC machining?

CNC machining can be used with a variety of materials. These include metals such as aluminum, steel, and titanium, as well as plastics and other materials.

How do I design a part for CNC machining?

If you are designing parts for CNC machining. Then, you should consider factors such as material selection, geometry, and tolerances. In addition, you should follow design guidelines and best practices to ensure manufacturability.

What are the limitations of CNC machining?

While CNC machining offers many benefits, it also has some limitations. These include high costs for complex parts, limitations on material selection, and potential for errors or defects.

How much does CNC machining cost?

The cost of CNC machining depends on several factors. These include material selection, part complexity, and production volume. In addition, it can be influenced by factors such as machine time, labor, and overhead.

How do I get started with CNC machining?

To begin CNC machining, you should consider factors such as material selection, part design, and production requirements. Most importantly, you should work with a qualified CNC machining supplier to ensure successful production.

What surface finishes are available for CNC machined parts?

CNC machined parts can be finished with a variety of surface treatments. These include machining marks, deburring, and coating or plating to achieve the desired appearance and performance.

How do I calculate CNC machining time?

CNC machining time can be calculated based on factors such as part complexity, material selection, and machine capabilities. In addition, it can be influenced by factors such as tooling and setup.